Real Tashayyu blog had another interesting post on the Muharram Rituals of the Early Shias. I am reproducing the English translation of the quote (all rights reserved to the to the blog)

Rather, (any) reporter (historian) did not mention that anyone from the Shia public performed it (violent Muharram rituals such as tatbir) or that one of their scholars permitted it, in the era in which all the kings of the Islamic countries were Shia. That is the period in which al Buhaivi (founder of the Buyid regime) was the king of Persia and Iraq, and other countries were ruled by his family/progeny. And the Abbasid caliphs did not share the rule with them except by name (as figureheads). Syrian region and the Island was ruled by Bani Hamdan and the rulers of Egypt, Africa and the Maghreb were the Fatimids. And in their age there were great Shia scholars such as Shaikh Mufid, Sharif al Murtada and Syed al Radhi (ra), on top of that the extremism of the Buyids in propagating the establishment of Muharram's mourning ceremonies/rituals to the extent that on Ashura the markets of Baghdad would be closed and Muharram mourning ceremonies/rituals took place on the roads, despite this no one reports that anything such as injuring the heads with swords and its like took place in that period. (In the Risalah al Tanzih by Syed Muhsin al Amin)

You may also want to check out some of my own posts
link 1
link 2
link 3
link 4
link 5

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 12)

This is perhaps the final part of the following paper

Summary:
There is not a single format for commemorating the Ashura in ritualistic aspect because it differs significantly from one place to another (various examples were given of rituals practices in the Arab communities of Iraq and Lebanon, the Persian community in Iran, Ashura observance among the Turkish and Indian Shia).

You are also able to draw the following three conclusions about the origin of the main Ashura rituals

• The oldest Ashura rituals are the memorial services and the visitation of Husayn's tomb (because these were established in the earliest days of Shi'ism).
• The public procession and the Ashura play (dramatization of the events at Karbala on Ashura) appeared in the time of Buyid and Safawid
• The introduction of the ritual of flagellation by Turkoman tribes and Christian Armenians reflected the input of Shi'i converts, demonstrating the influence of Christian practices on Shi'ism (Note: taken verbatim)

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 11)

The author maintain that the Qizilbash had copied the flagellation (done in remembrance of Imam Husayn (as) with a slight influence from the Sufis) from the Armenian Christians who used to revere Jesus (as) in the same manner.

The earliest record of Christianity points the start of the flagellation in Italy (year 1260 AD) lead by the Franciscans. According to the author, there were over a hundred fraternities in Italy between the thirteenth to sixteenth centuries that practiced flagellation. At least one of the fraternities had between 500-600 memberships.

Flagellation in reverence of Christ and as a form of sharing his sufferings constituted an important ritual in the religious life of these fraternities, and this activity was believed to procure the salvation of those who engaged in it

The author suggested two ways in which these ceremonies could have spread among the Muslims

• When the Ottomans started invading territories in the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
• War captives or locals transmitted the ritual to eastern Anatolia or the Caucasus (through trade).

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 10)

Some elements from the Qizilbash group was discussed (footnote is pointing to this book)

The Qizilbash observed ecstatic rituals of dhikr and maintained a spirit and an organizational form similar to that of a fraternity. While Shi'i elements were predominant, Christian elements also played an important role in the Qizilbash doctrine. This was probably the result of the conversion of Armenians to Shi'i Islam by the Safavid shaykhs, as well as the presence of other Christian sects in eastern Anatolia and the Caucasus where the Qizilbash had originated.

Author quoted another lengthy narration of the Muharram rituals among the poorest segments of the Azerbaijan population (footnote is to the work by Ivar Lassy)

During Muharram they would gather in special halls, takkas (derived from takiya, a monastery of a sufi order). Using chain-scourges, and chanting scourge-elegies that emphasized the shedding of Husayn's blood, they scourged themselves rhythmically at a pace and vigor that accelerated like a dhikr. The self-scourging would cease only after the participants had collapsed.

The procession of the tenth of Muharram included another, more violent, form of flagellation. A group of self-mutilators dressed in white robes would stroke their clean-shaven heads with swords and daggers. The gashing of the heads took place amidst loud exclamations and the stimulating shouts of their leader. The extreme excitement of the self-mutilators was assisted by drummers and cymbalists who ran up and down between the rows of the self-mutilators, creating a deafening din with their instruments.

Please continue reading part 11.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 9)

There is a footnote from Werner Ende ("The Flagellations of Muharram and the Shi'ite 'Ulama") citing the work of Muhammad Mahdi al-Qazwin which was published in 1927

the use of iron (in tatbir) was initiated "about a century ago" by people not well versed in the rules of the Shari'a

The author also quoted two work about the beginning of tatbir in Iraq (one in 1913 another is 1978)

It is related that the practice was imported to these cities by Shi'i Turks, who came to Karbala and Najaf on pilgrimage from the Caucasus or Azerbaijan

The author also believe that this practice is connected to the Ghulats and also the Sufis

It seems that the flagellations were introduced into Imami Shi'ism by extremist Shi'i groups, probably by the Qizilbash, whose doctrine and rituals were regarded by Imami Shi'i orthodoxy as exaggerated in reverence for the imams.

The Armenian highlands, and the Caucasus were converted by Safavid sufi shaykhs to whom the converts owed obedience in their capacity as their supreme spiritual leaders. The shaykhs made Ardabil in northern Iran a center designed to maintain the contacts between them and their new disciples (murids). With the establishment of the Safavid dynasty, the murids were given the nickname Qizilbash (redhead).

Please continue reading part 10

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 8)

Tracing the flagellations (tatbir)

• 17th century in Caucasus and Azerbaijan
• 19th century in Arab world (Iraq, Lebanon)
• 19th century in Central and Southern Iran
• Unsure when tatbir started in India

As for the practice of tatbir in India, the author added that

The practice could have been transmitted into that country either by Iranian Shi'i immigrants in the nineteenth century or perhaps even earlier by Shi'i Qizilbash cavalrymen hired by Safdar Jang, the governor of Awadh, from Nadir Shah following the withdrawal of the latter's army from India around 1740.

Author quoted historical data from Iraq and Iran (biographies and oral history)

The biographies identify Shaykh Mulla Agha 'Abid al-Darbendi (d. 1868/9) as the first to introduce violent acts of self-flagellation into Tehran around the mid-nineteenth century.. Darbendi was known for his deep love for imam Husayn.

During the first ten days of Muharram many people would assemble by the pulpit from which he used to preach. Darbendi exhorted people to experience pain, urging weeping, lamentations, and self flagellation. This would reach its peak on the tenth day when he used to exercise "demon-like" practices. Among Darbendi's works, Shi'i biographies highlight one in particular: (The Elixir of the Acts ofDevotion for the Secrets of Martyrdom). Darbendi is said to include in this work uncommon rituals, not to be found in other accepted Shi'i Imami writings on the commemoration of Ashura.

Please continue reading part 9.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 7)

So, what is the origin of flagellation or tatbir?

According to the paper, the earliest accounts of travelers and Shii sources points to the Caucasus and Azerbaijan as the place of origin for flagellation (tatbir). The middle-east travelers (of European descent) have also noted places where tatbir was performed and where it wasn't

In the southern cities such as Isfahan and Shiraz, the travellers Della Valle, Thevenot, Tavernier, and Le Brun (whom Masse considered noteworthy for their precision) did not mention any shedding of blood. In contrast, in the frontier-like, Turkish-speaking regions of the Caucasus and Azerbaijan in northern Iran, the travelers Kakasch, Olearius, and Struys wrote that devotees struck their heads with swords.

Another traveler, Evliya Chelebi, who visited Tabriz in 1640 and attended the observances of the tenth of Muharram in that city narrated his experience

(Note: Only relevant parts are reproduced here)

Some hundred men mingle in the crowd with razors, with which they cut the arms and breasts of all loving believers, who desire to shed their blood on this day in remembrance of the blood shed by the imam; they make such deep incisions and scars, that the ground appears as if it was blooming with tulips. Some thousands brand the marks and names of Hasan and Husayn on their heads, arms, and breasts. They then carry Husayn's body (Note: a model or replica of a human being) away from the ground with much pomp, and finish the ceremony with great howling.

Please continue reading part 8.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 6)

I don't know why I am not yet done with the paper.

But it is getting very interesting.

On page 14, the author mentioned briefly how taziya spread from Iran to surrounding areas,

The taziya play developed mainly in Iran and its rich theatrical dimensions reflected strong Persian influences. This is supported by what is known about the shabih and the taziya play in other Shi'i regions. Introduced into Iraq only in the late eighteenth century, the shabih never developed into a full-scale theater and its nature was fundamentally different from that of the Iranian, reflecting the strong Arab tribal character of Iraqi Shi'i society.

In Lebanon, oral traditions relate that the ta'ziya play was introduced into Nabatiyya (a small Shi'i town in the south) by some Iranians only in the late nineteenth century.

Here, I am summarizing the development of taziya or some from of it

• Azeri Turk, West of the Caspian Sea and in the frontier area between Iran and Turkey in the twentieth century - some form of taziya
• Turks in Anatolia - no Taziya
• Southern India in the late 1820s - public processions
• Bengal and Bihar in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century - public processions
• Shi'i state of Awadh in northern India - no taziya

We are now going into the discussion of perhaps one of the most controversial ritual on Ashura (the tenth of Muharram), the flagellation or tatbir.

Author stressed yet again that chest-beating and slapping of one's own face is the traditional ways of expressing personal grief and pain and these activities was seen during the Buyid Dynasty in Baghdad.

But what about the origin of tatbir?

According to the author,

It is more difficult, however, to determine just exactly when and where knives, swords, and chains were first used by Shi'i mourners to shed blood for Husayn's death. The use of instruments to shed blood added a violent aspect to the Muharram rites.

Please continue reading part 7.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 5)

On page 11, the author focused mostly on dramatizing the battle of Karbala . He stressed again the role played by the Safavid to promote the Muharram rituals.

The appearance of the shabih (this is the play) in Iran might have been inspired by the Christian Corpus Christi Processions, the theater of the Stations of the Cross, or by the European Corpus Christi plays of the post-Renaissance period which reenacted various events in the passion of Christ culminating in his crucifixion and resurrection.

Why make such statement when you don't even have a shred of evidence? Persian theater goes back a thousand years before the birth of Christ. Perhaps the Safavid Iran played an important role to popularize that form of ritual/expression, but what I object is the manner on how the author generalized something with very little evidence.

It seems that he either contradicted himself or was unclear on the practice because in the same paragraph he also said

It may also be that in its initial carnival type format the Shabih incorporated some features of ancient Iranian practices like the use of banners and horses in funeral processions.

He then cited some contributions from Allama al-Majlisi in consolidating the Shabih.

In the 18 century (after the downfall of the Safavid) right up to the 19th century, a new form of ritual called the taziya was observed. The author said

The straightforward form of the shabih gave way to a more theatrical form, the taziya play, which was enacted on stage. As Miller suggested, the appearance of a theatrical form coincided with literary developments, most notably the use of a new dramatic literary genre instead of the old narrating literature.

He also said

While the main theme was still the battle of Karbala, much stress was laid on individual heroes around whom separate plays were written. To create a greater effect, authors of the taziya plays added new characters and transformed existing ones.

There is a mention of some limitation enforced by a mujtahid. The footnote points to a translation of Qummi's fatwa (found in Mayel Baktash, "Taziyeh and its Philosophy," in Peter Chelkowski, Taziyeh, pp. 107-108. Parts of this fatwa and that of Ha'iri's are cited by 'Abd al-Rida Kashif al-Ghita', al-Anwar al-husayniyya, pt. 2, pp. 77-79).

I don't have a clue what this is referring to but maybe someone knows. If so, please leave a note here.

Please continue reading part 6.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 4)

I am already half-way through the paper.

On page 9 the author mentioned that he believe that the visitation to the tomb of Imam Husayn (as) served the following two purpose
- Renew the covenant between the believer and the Imam
- The educational aspect

He also cited another work entitled The role of the Holy sites in shaping the collective memory of religious groups. He then said that the focus to the Shrine in Karbala is directly challenging the position of Mecca!

I am not sure why he made such statement. Imam Husayn (as) is not just a Shia personality but also the grandson of the Prophet. Every Muslim sects recognize him and his brother as the true Muslim leader, if not in dunya (the world), then in akhira (hereafter). So it shouldn't surprise anyone that the place of his death, the site of the battle of Karbala is a pilgrimage site. Just because many people (Shias) flock to the shrine city doesn't automatically mean that they will not perform the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) in the future. Hajj is among the most important religious obligation for Sunnis and also Shias who are capable to perform it. Many people go to Karbala after completing their Hajj. For many Iraqi Shias, the visitation to the site is only a few hours away. And for many Iranians, the trip to Karbala can be made in a comfortable air-conditioned buses (nowadays).

The next ritual is the the public mourning processions. The author believed this ritual was reinstated under the Buyid dynasty in Baghdad (year 945-1055). He then described the diversity in public procession (from one place to another). Also worthy of a mention here is the fact that the Muharram procession incorporate the traditional ways of mourning for the Arabs.

The processions incorporated acts of breastbeating and face-slapping (latm), a traditional form of mourning for the dead among the Arabs even before the appearance of Islam.

The next ritual is the Karbala play or re-enactment of the battle of Karbala on the stage or arena. The author stated that

The establishment of Safavid Iran (1501-1722) led to the development of a new ritual, the shabih, i.e., the representation of the battle of Karbala in the form of a carnival-play.

Please continue reading part 5.

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 3)

Based on the traditions (hadiths) that we have, the memorial services (narrating the events at Karbala) was started by the female members of Imam Husayn (may peace be upon him) family immediately following his death, even before they were sent to face Yazeed (lanatullah). The author commented that

During the Umayyad period the mourning of Husayn's martyrdom was observed in secret in the homes of the imams and their followers. By the early 'Abbasid period, the memorial services were no longer confined to private houses alone, but were also held in public mosques.

The author also believed that it was the spread of Shi’ism in Muslim territories that made the memorial services took a more elaborate form (i.e., chant elegies, and to read traditions and stories on the sufferings of the imams from the martyrdom) but until today, no one binding format has developed and the nature and scope of the services has differed from one place to another.

The paper had a lengthy discussion on the purpose and advantages of the memorial services. I am re-producing one of the sayings from the eight Imam of Ahlul Bayt Ali Al-Rida, (d. 818) (may peace be upon him) which was quoted in the paper

He for whom the day of 'Ashura would be his day of calamity, sorrow, and weeping, for him God will make the day of resurrection a day of joy and happiness, and, delighted, he will be sitting with [the imams] in heaven. But he who marks the day of 'Ashura as a day of blessing [baraka]... will, on the day of resurrection, share the hottest flames of hell with Yazid, 'Ubaydallah ibn Ziyad, and 'Umar ibn Sa'd.

The author also mentioned that the composition of poetry in memory of the Karbala episode was not confined to the early periods of Shi'ism. He presented a poem written in the mid 19th century.

In regards to the visitation to the burial place of the Imam and the martyrs at Karbala, the author stated that

In the first decades following Husayn's death the visitation of his tomb in Karbala was still precarious, and it was observed mainly by the Imams and members of their families.

Please continue reading part 4

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura? (part 2)

Before going further, I need to point out that for some strange reason, the author is contrasting some of the Islamic teachings/traditions with Judaism.
e.g.

Shi'i historiography bears a striking similarity to Jewish historiography of the Middle Ages in its approach to history. Both identified a wrong turn in the course of history. They became preoccupied with legitimizing authority (the imams, and later on the ulama', in the case of the Shi’i; the rabbis in the case of the Jews of the Middle Ages), and with the signs of the coming of the messianic figure who would bring history back to its right path.

Most if not all the religion in the world has some of these characteristics (i.e., Christianity and Hindusim). Christians are also waiting for the second coming of Jesus. Muslims, both the Shia and the Sunni believe in a messianic figure called Imam Mahdi (aj).

He then stated the importance of the rituals associated with remembrance of the Ashura.

In the case of Shi'ism, the evocation of the Karbala episode was left for the rituals of remembrance that developed around the annual commemoration of 'Ashura'. The importance of the rituals of Muharram in invoking the memory of Karbala cannot be overestimated, for it is in these rituals that the moods and motivations that are induced in the believers by the symbol of Husayn's martyrdom surface.

The following are five major rituals developed around the remembrance of the battle of Karbala. These rituals include

1. The memorial services (majalis al-ta'ziya)
2. The visitation of Husayn's tomb in Karbala particularly on the occasion of the tenth day of 'Ashura' and the fortieth day after the battle (ziyarat' ashura' and ziyarat -arba'in)
3. The public mourning processions (al-mawakiba l-husayniyya or al-'aza'iyya),
4. The representation of the battle of Karbala in the form of a play (the shabih)
5. The flagellation (tatbir).

The author will attempt to trace the origin of the above rituals and also answer the following two questions

How did socio-political change influence the development of the Muharram rituals?
What role did various Shi'i groups and other cultures, and religions play in shaping their nature?

Please continue reading part 3

What is the origin of the ritual of Ashura?

I am currently reading the following paper

An Attempt to Trace the Origin of the Rituals of ʿashūrāʾ

I thank the brother who has made the paper available to me (you know who you are).

This paper is not written by a Shia. From the look of it, the author may not even be a Muslim.

On a personal level, I have always been interested to find out the origin of some of the ritual associated with the Day of Ashura. Ashura is the 10th of the Month of Muharram. The most famous event that happened on the 10th of Muharram is the event of Karbala. This is perhaps one of the saddest day in the history of Islam and Muslims because on this day in the year 680 CE, the Grandson of the Prophet of Islam, Hussayn son of Ali (may peace be on him) was slaughtered mercilessly with his children, his brother, his nephews, his friends and his extended family while the female members of his family (sisters, daughters and wives) looked on with horror.

Hussayn (may peace be upon him) is the son of Fatima (may peace be upon her). Fatima is the beloved daughter of the Prophet Muhammad (may peace be upon him and his family). Hussayn (as) with his brother Hassan (as) are leaders of all men in Paradise.

Both of these honorable men (grandsons of the Prophet) were killed by the order of the first and the second king of the Ummayad (the first dynastic family to run the Muslim empire).

The paper starts with highlighting the division in the Muslim Ummah.

1. Supporters of Muawiyah (Lanatullah)
2. Supporters of Ali (may peace be upon him)

The author then mentioned that remembrance of Imam Hussayn (as) and the event of Karbala is one of the main distinctions between the Sunni sects and the Shia.

To the Shias, the martyrdom of Imam Hussayn and his loyal family and friends it one of the ultimate sacrifice and as such the Imam, apart from being the leader of all the men in paradise, is also the leader of the martyrs (arabic: Sayyid al-Suhadah).

Please continue reading part 2

Fasting for 16 hours when it is 110 degree outside

Fasting in the Holy Month of Ramadhan will be challenging to some folks in Texas since the temperature will top at 110F/43 Celsius.

“The heat really puts the burden on thirst,” said Shaykh Kifah Mustapha, imam and associate director of The Mosque Foundation in Bridgeview. “Very few people complain about not eating, but many complain about the thirst. And for people who must work outside, digging ditches, doing construction work, it’s very bad.”

We also have long days. On the average, I am fasting for 16 hours plus some minutes (daily).

Interestingly some people in Turkey are also fasting for 16+ hours

The longest fasting period in Turkey this year will be 16 hours and 22 minutes in the Black Sea province of Sinop, while the shortest fast will be in the Mediterranean province of Hatay, at 14 hours and 46 minutes.

The best strategy for fasting is to not think that you are fasting, not think about food and keep busy.